Definition of Mashrabiya
Mashrabiya is the prominent window that overlooks the street or the courtyard of traditional Arab houses.
Mashrabiya is the prominent window that overlooks the street or the courtyard of traditional Arab houses. In the past Mashrabiya was the name given to space, which is enclosed with wooden lattice openings (Figure 2.1), where jars of drinking water were putto cool. Coolair was created by the evaporation which is caused by the movement of air through the lattice openings(Fathy, 1986).
Figure 2.1:The cooling effect of Mashrabiya (Dayyoub, 2001)
Later, the name Mashrabiya was only given to the lattice screen, which is made of wooden balusters with a circular section (Figure 2.2), as a perfect condition to provide smoother airflow which contributes to the evaporation factor. This screen was completely hand-made and the design of the balusters was varied in different, artistic ways (Figure 2.3) for example, geometric and floral decorative forms or Arabic inscriptions (Figure 2.4) (Fathy,1986)
Figure2.2: Traditional Mashrabiya typology (Samuels, 2011)
Figure 2.3: An old Mashrabiya in Pakistan decorated with floral forms (Orfali, 2015)
Figure 2.4: Mashrabiya with Arabic inscriptions and calligraphy designs from the Quranon theterrace of Gayer Anderson House in Cairo, Egypt (Alothman, 2016)
It can be seen that the Mashrabiya differs from other prominent windows or any random lattice screens; it was designed to respond specifically, effectively and dynamically to people’s physical, environmental, social, physiological and religious requirements.
Mashrabiya Etymology
The word Mashrabiya came from an Arab root meaning that is a place where the jars of drinking water were being put to cool.
The word Mashrabiya came from an Arab root meaning that is a place where the jars of drinking water were being put to cool, Mashraba is the noun form of a verb in Arabic “yashrab “ meaning “drink” (Fathy, 1986). It has also been said that Mashrabiya is a distortion of the word “ Mashrafiya”, taken from the verb in Arabic yoshrif meaning to overlook or observe, because the Mashrafiya is the prominent part of a window where the ladies of the house could observe the road outside in complete privacy (Figure 2.5).
Figure 2.5: The ladies behind the Mashrabiya (Ficarelli, 2008)
There is a third view that says that the element was named by the Macherbah; it is an attribution to the kind of wood, called Macherb that was used in the manufacture of the screen. It is a good quality wood which is characterized by strength and the ability to withstand the heat of the sun and a harsh climate (Ben-Hamouche, 2013).
The Mashrabiya was widespread in Islam, but not only in Arab countries; consequently it has been given many names, like Roshan or Roche in the Arabization of the Persian word (Rosen), which means a window or a balcony (Almurahhem, 2009). It also was known such as Cumba in Turkey; Cumba describes the prominent window that is enclosed by wooden lattice openings (Göçek, 2011). Jali in India, Shanshol in Iraq, Mushabak or Roshan in Iran, Roshan in Saudi Arabia also, Aggasi in Bahrain, Takhrima in Yemen, Barmaqli in Tunis.
But the most commonly found name is Mashrabiya (Ashi, 2010) (Table 2.1). It is worth mentioning that Mashrabiya is written in some studies as Mashrabiyya both expressions are correct, due to the grammar of the Arabic language which gives prominence to the Y letter in speaking or writing, as in the word Mashrabiyya.
Table2.1: The Various Names of Mashrabiya Around the World (Alothman,2016)
Mashrabiya History and Spread
The history of Mashrabiya is dating back to the period when Arabs entered to Egypt, but when it first became used in particular, it is difficult to pinpoint because of the ever- evolving nature of architecture.
The history of Mashrabiya is dating back to the period when Arabs entered to Egypt, but when it first became used in particular, it is difficult to pinpoint because of the ever- evolving nature of architecture.
The British architectural historian author Briggs speculated (1974) that the origins of Mashrabiya could be found in the Coptic churches in Egypt. In a detailed explanation by the French Egyptologist Maspero (1914), (Manual of Egyptian Archaeology and Guide to the Study of Antiquities in Egypt) he discusses the process of the development of Mashrabiya and he points out that the Mashrabiya began to flourish during Tulunid era (868- 905) where they used a considerable amount of wood in their buildings, and Arab manufacturers benefited at the beginning of the industry, from the experience of the Copts, who were excellent woodworkers.
This wood work was inherited by Copts from the ancient Egyptians who used the wood for their doors and to build the roofing of their houses. The growth of Mashrabiya construction continued during the Abbasid era (750-1258), especially during the time of the Ayyubid (1171-1250) (Figures 2.6 - 2.7).
Figure2.6:Two views of an amazing Mashrabiya in Alhambra palace in Granada, Spain(Hornsby,2014)
Thereafter, during the Mamluk era (1250-1517) the Mashrabiya industry grew and flourished artistically. The small screen openings, whether made of fine-tuned wood or shading louvers with geometric shapes, allow the women to gaze outside and to be both unseen and unheard. If communication is required, most Mashrabiya, especially Egyptian ones, have smaller windows that can be opened upwards (Maspero,1914).
Figure 2.7: Two Mashrabiyas with small windows that can be opened at Alsuhaimi House,in Cairo, Egypt (1648)(Kalpana,2011)
The privacy requirement was a core value of the Islamic religion, so the Mashrabiya had widespread popularity throughout history, especially during the Islamic Ottoman era (1517-c1805), and it also continued later in various Arab regions, helping to adorn the streets, by giving it a beautiful artistic character (Maspero,1974). It should be mentioned that (Figures2.8-28)in this chapter are documented according to the chronology of the spread of Mashrabiya.
Common Traditional Places for Mashrabiya
Mashrabiyas were introduced in public places such as mosques and tombs, semi-public places such as agencies and caravansaries, and private places such as houses and palaces.
Façades of traditional houses (Figures 2.41- 2.42).
Mosques (Figure 2.43).
Semi-public buildings like : agencies and caravansaries (Figure 2.44).
Tombs (Figure 2.45) (Feeny,1974).
Partition in interior design between rooms to increase ventilation from more than one side of the house, as seen in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia (Fathy, 1986).
Mashrabiyas were introduced into mosques too, often on a much larger scale, but serving the same purpose: filtering the intense sunlight flooding into the traditional courtyard and providing a cool shaded interior conducive to prayer and meditation. Others were created for large semi-public buildings like the wakalah, or caravansary, of el-Ghori, built in the 16th century to accommodate merchants coming into Cairo with caravans from the Red Sea. But the best examples were found in the great homes of Cairo, homes like el-Kretiliya, hard against the ninth-century walls of Ibn Tulun's great mosque, and el-Seheimy house, built in 1645. (Feeney, 1974) (Figure 2.46).
Façades of traditional houses
Figure 2.41: Mashrabiyas in Harem Room, Gayer Anderson House, Cairo, Egypt (Alothman, 2016)
Figure 2.42: Mashrabiyas on the terrace of Gayer Anderson House, Egypt (Alothman, 2016)
Mosques
Figure 2.43: Mashrabiya in Faraj Ibn Berkuk Mosque, Cairo, Egypt (Alothman, 2016)
Semi-public buildings like : agencies and caravansaries
Figure 2.44: Mashrabiyas of Bazara Wakala in Cairo, Egypt (Alothman, 2016)
Tombs
Figure 2.45: Tomb of Salim Chishti in India (Fatehpur, 2010)
Partition in interior design between rooms to increase ventilation from more than one side of the house.
Decline of the Mashrabiya
In the early 20 century, Mashrabiyas started to decline in use due to many factors. Therefore the reasons behind the decline in the use of the Mashrabiya are twofold: due to both cultural and practical influences.
In the early 20 century, Mashrabiyas started to decline in use due to many factors. For example, the result of cursory modernization, the growth of globalization, and the abandonment of vernacular traditions. Concurrent with this was a changing economic structure, which was born of the industrial revolution that made small craft-based manufacturing redundant. Therefore the reasons behind the decline in use of the Mashrabiya are twofold: due to both cultural and practical influences (Akbar, 1994) (Figure 2.47).
Figure 2.47: The reasons for the decline in use of the Mashrabiya (Alothman, 2016)
Cultural
“.. with the rapid growth of Europe and America in the 19th and 20th Centuries it became important for the slow developing economies of the Middle East to adopt the modern appearance of western values and, as such, architecture.
”
Therefore architectural elements such as the Mashrabiya came to be considered as antiquated, too decorative, too expensive, and hampering the growth of the Arab economy at that time. Additionally the increase in globalization led to decline of Mashrabiyas, because the new technologies and styles of globalization, were encouraging simplicity and the avoidance of complex façades or decoration, both of which conflicted with the design and construction of Mashrabiyas (Figure 2.48).
““It was symbolic because the image of villas and apartments was modern and thus, if the [Mashrabiya] was fixed on a villa or apartment, the modern image which people were keen to express would be distorted.”
”
Figure 2.48: Egypt in the early 20 century (https://soundslikewish.com/tag/egypt/page/4/)
Practical
The industrial revolution of the 19th century led to major economic changes which made traditional architecture financially unviable, so the Mashrabiya was considered labor-intensive, incredibly time-consuming and expensive. Consequently, architects were forced to avoid using the Mashrabiya due to its high costs. Air conditioners were used to replace them, but were unable to operate with the same efficiency as the Mashrabiya, especially in the hot, desert climate.
As a result of the Mashrabiya achieving widespread popularity around the old world for many decades, its construction flourished, especially in Egypt due to the arabesque design and woodwork being so popular in ancient times. Mashrabiya did not provide only a decorative and aesthetic element, but also it was designed to perform many environmental functions like adjustment of lighting, humidity and air flow control, reducing the heat, and playing an essential role in securing privacy. The next chapter will study all these functions and parameters of design, in addition it will expound the importance of commitment to the proper criteria of Mashrabiya, in order to fully exploit its functions.
Functions of Mashrabiya
Mashrabiya models have been developed to describe ways of coping with the different conditions affecting one or more of these functions. The main functions are Light Control, Airflow Regulation, Humidity Control, Temperature Regulation, Visual Privacy, Aesthetic and Social Role, Spatiality.
The history of Mashrabiya is an important fact, but it cannot alone explain why the Mashrabiya became so widespread. Therefore it is necessary to know and study the role and functions of Mashrabiya within buildings.
Fathy asserted (in 1986) that Mashrabiya has, in general, five functions, and many models of these have been developed to describe ways of coping with the different conditions affecting one or more of these functions. The main functions are :
Figure 3.1: Functions of Mashrabiya (Alothman, 2016)
Fathy accepted wooden lattice as Mashrabiya, if it was able to provide some or all of these functions. He also suggested that to achieve any function, there are terms of design concerning the choice of the distances between adjacent balusters and the radius of each of them. According to the different designs, there are many models of Mashrabiya that are known by different names.
Light Control
Natural light is one of the most important matters in architecture, as Louis Kahn described a room is not a room without natural light. But it is not only advantageous; there are three issues that need to be controlled:
The heating caused by direct solar gain.
The internal daylighting requirements.
The visual qualities of light, such as glare.
There are three types of daylight:
- Direct light
- Diffuse skylight
- Reflected glare
Mashrabiya can effectively deal with these three kinds and solve the problems by changing the light from something harsh and undesirable to a highly favorable and lovely feature of internal space. And it should be mentioned that the effect of internal daylight varies depending on the direction, for example it is preferable to block direct light entering from the southern openings, because it causes the surfaces to heat up inside the room, even though the glare from this direction does not cause any heat, it can cause an optical inconvenience (Figure 3.2).
Openings from the north do not cause any problems. Accordingly, the design of Mashrabiya with a south façade differs noticeably from the design in a northerly one. A Mashrabiya with a carefully calculated design is able to adjust exactly to what type of light should enter the building (Figure 3.3).
Figure 3.2: The angle of the sun above the horizon at noon (Southern Façade) (Fathy, 1986)
Figure 3.3: A plan of a room facing North, and the angle of the sun's rays falling from the North is 27, 20° (Fathy, 1986)
Direct Light
Direct light is intensified light, which has an acute angle falling on the surface of the aperture level (Fathy, 1986). Mashrabiya is able to control when and how much direct daylight could enter the building during summer or winter according to the parameters of Mashrabiya design which the architect determines. It blocks the troublesome sun, decreases internal heat gain during summer and allows for a small amount of light to enter during winter (Figure 3.4).
Figure 3.4: Oriel Mashrabiya Room at Prince Mohammed Ali Tewfik Palace, in Cairo, Egypt (1899 - 1929) (Andrew, 2016)
According to Fathy’s principles (1986), this requires a lattice with small interval distances between the balusters at eye level, in order to prevent direct light in summer. While in winter it works in the opposite way, when the sun’s angle is lower in the sky and can pass through the interstices of the same Mashrabiya, and provide some warmth to the room . To compensate for the decrease in the amount of lighting in this design, it is preferable that the spaces between the balusters are made much wider in the upper parts of the façade, as shown in the example which is taken from Jamal al-Din alZahabi’s house in Cairo, Egypt Figure (3.5).
Figure 3.5: Mashrabiya at Jamal al-Din alZahabi’s house in Cairo, Egypt (Maher, 2015)
Figure 3.6: External view of Mashrabiya on the third floor of Suhaimi house in Cairo shows the prominent sunshade above (Fathy, 1986)
It is possible to install a small sunshade above the aperture to prevent direct sunlight from entering (Figure 3.6)
In north interfaces, where direct sunlight does not cause any problems, Fathy always preferred to make the separation distances between balusters wider, to provide adequate light for rooms.
Diffuse skylight
It is the required adequate daylighting which the internal spaces need to allow for regular activities, and it is essential in hot climates to create good internal situations without being bothered by excessive heat gain.
Even if we need to block direct sunlight in the troublesome times, we still need enough natural internal light for regular, daily activities. Mashrabiya is an important element that allows ambient light to pass into spaces without letting in direct sunlight. The quantity of diffuse skylight that goes into a room relies primarily on the important parameters that control how much ambient light can enter the building. These parameters, according to Samuels (2011) are: the size and porosity of the Mashrabiya, along with the reflectivity and materiality of the balusters.
Glare
It is less intense light and enters almost perpendicularly on the surface of aperture level (Fathy, 1986). Glare doesn’t raise the temperature of the room, but it causes an optical inconvenience. To solve this problem Mashrabiya is one of the best effective choices. In this case the architect have to choose a Mashrabiya with a circular section for the balusters as a main condition.
“The balusters, round in section, graduate the light reaching their surfaces, thus softening the contrast between the darkness of the opaque balusters and the brightness of the glare entering through the interstices... Therefore, with the Mashrabiya the eye is not dazzled by the contrast as in the case of the brise-soleil.
”
That means the gradual shadow which is created by rounded blusters, reduces any contrast, unlike the square sectional balusters, or any other similar shading devices. This is a common mistake, which is repeated in some modern projects which use the Mashrabiya without taking into account this important condition, especially when using steel material in the construction of Mashrabiya (Figure 3.7).
Figure 3.7: Analysis of the light falling on the Mashrabiya (Fathy, 1986)
Figure 3.8 shows the impact of Mashrabiya if there is a bright light, and how it produces a shaded image which moves the eye between the rods through spacing, horizontally and vertically, thereby invalidating the slashing effect which is caused by the flat slats used in brise-soleil Figure (3.9). Fathy (1986) also saw that Mashrabiya excelled in other types of window by working on matching the external views harmoniously through the full aperture, above the decorative pattern to the Mashrabiya, so Mashrabiya becomes like a piece of dark glass which is woven by ‘threads’ (Figure 3.10). In this way the view beyond is exposed, while maintaining privacy without any of the heat gain problems previously discussed.
Figure 3.8: An interior view of Mashrabiya at al-Suhaymi House in Cairo, Egypt (Tolba, 2011)
Figure 3.9: The Brise- Soliel in Boike - Cote d'Ivoire (Fathy, 1986)
Figure 3.10: Mashrabiya at al Suhaimi House clearly shows the tree behind it (Fathy, 1986)
Airflow Regulation
Evaporation is one of the most important techniques used to cool buildings in hot climates, and to make this process continuous and effective, the airflow needs to be strong enough to carry the released water vapor away, and thus provide heat transfer.
On this point it is important that buildings in harsh climates have a steady and uninterrupted internal airflow, so it is necessary to fully understand the effect of the design and the size of Mashrabiya. Further points concerning ventilation; Mashrabiya is used to ensure air circulation inside the building, air is pulled into the room through the small interstices of the Mashrabiya in the lower part and hot air is ejected out through the large interstices of the upper part. This technique not only enhances the air circulation but also speeds it into other indoor rooms.
When the temperature of the air diminishes, its size decreases, per contra the weight and density of it increase. The output rise in the air pressure drives the air to blow into the internal spaces through the small interstices. As the air temperature increases, the size of air increases also, while its weight and density decrease, therefore low pressure makes the air move upwards and out of through the large interstices in the upper part of the Mashrabiya. It is worth mentioning that the rounded surfaces of the latticework of Mashrabiya provide a smooth airflow. For the winter and in cold climates, the Mashrabiya can be prepared with glass shutters and solid wood (Lane, 1977).
To get more airflow, different pressures may be created between the inside and outside of the building, by openings on opposite walls of the room. The size of these openings and the porosity of the Mashrabiyas which enclose them are the decisive factors in the flow rate between the two. If the interstices constitute 80% of the total Mashrabiya area (Porosity Factor [PF or φ] = 0.8) then the airflow through the opening will be at 80% of what it would have been with no Mashrabiya in place (Gandemer and Alain, 1981).
A Mashrabiya with large interstices provides adequate airflow, when considerations relating to the light require narrow interstices and thus impedes sufficient air flow, in this case the architect can use the large open interstices pattern of Mashrabiya in the upper part, near the overhang, or increase the size of Mashrabiya, even to the point of covering the entire elevation of the room (Figure 3.11).
Sometimes the Mashrabiya was used by Fathy in interior design, between rooms, to supply the ventilation from more than one side of the building.
Figure 3.11: An old Mashrabiya at Al Suhaymi House in Cairo, Egypt (Marawan, 2016)
Humidity Control
The air which passes through the wooden Mashrabiya, loses some of its humidity by the absorption property of the wooden balusters; if they are cold, as usual at night, and when the Mashrabiya is heated by direct sunlight, this humidity is absorbed by the air which flows through the porous wooden Mashrabiya (Figure 3.12). This technique is efficient in making dry air more moist in the heat of the day, humidifying and cooling it at a time when most needed.
“The balusters and interstices of the Mashrabiya have optimal absolute and relative sizes that are based on the area of surfaces exposed to the air and the rate of at which the air passes through. Thus if the surface area is increased by increasing baluster size, the cooling and humidification are increased. Furthermore, a larger baluster has not only more surface area to absorb water vapor and serve as a surface for evaporation but also more volume, which means that it has more capacity and will therefore release the water for evaporation over a longer period of time.
”
Figure 3.12: The cooling effect of Mashrabiya through the evapo-transpiration process (Fathy,1986, illustration by Gelil, 2014)
With regard to the foregoing, it should shed light on the importance of the wood chosen for the construction of Mashrabiya, and take into account that new alternative materials should have properties which are more or less similar to wood, in relation to absorption and evaporation matters.
For additional cooling by evaporation, the water jar can be used, placed behind the lattice of Mashrabiya, where the air flow gets cooled due to the evaporation of water from the jars, this process is known as evaporative cooling (Briggs, 1974) (Figure 3.13).
Figure 3.13: A porous clay water jar used to cool the air as it passes through the Mashrabiya and into the building behind (Ashi, 2010)
Temperature regulation
There are many recognized ways to adjust the temperature of buildings, like using walls with large sections and a high thermal inertia, shading the interiors, designing small apertures, and a smart combination of architectural elements that work together to reduce heat gains and create a perfect internal environment (Dayyoub, 2001).
We are all aware that direct sunlight is the reason for high temperatures, and the Mashrabiya limits the solar gain by shading the inner spaces during the hot summer months, but is able to supply some heat in the cooler months of the year, by allowing direct daylight to enter the building during winter. The cooling and heating processes rely on specific features of the lattice in terms of its sizing and porosity; a more porous lattice will allow for more direct light in the cold days but also raise the airflow through the space, and change the capacity of the evaporative cooling systems.
So it is important to fully understand each function separately, to determine the effects each have on the others, and how all of them work together to create comfortable thermal and visual conditions for internal spaces.
Visual privacy
As mentioned in chapter two, the widespread popularity of Mashrabiya in Islamic countries could be attributed to the visual privacy factor. Mashrabiya provides privacy for occupants from the outside, while allowing them, at the same time, to look out through the lattice. If the Mashrabiya is overlooking the street the distances between the balusters are preferably small at eye level, except for the upper part above eye level.
Figures 3.14 and 3.15 show an excellent example of how Mashrabiya can provide a view to the outside without losing the privacy factor which gives the resident a feeling of reassurance, as Fathy (1986) showed by focusing on the lattice, the Mashrabiya seems like a lighted wall, conversely, with the focus beyond the lattice, the external view is fully obvious, and only slightly obscured.
Figure 3.14: The focus is placed upon the individual balusters of a Mashrabiya in alSuhaimi House, creating a visual barrier in Cairo (Fathy, 1986)
Figure 3.15: The same Mashrabiya but viewed from the inside and with the focus being placed upon the brightly lit external courtyard, becoming almost transparent as a result (Fathy, 1986)
This is an important feature of the Mashrabiya, but it is no longer possible when glazed windows are used, as they block the connection between internal spaces and outdoors.
Aesthetic and Social Role
The different patterns of Mashrabiya imbued life and vibrancy to the façades of traditional buildings which were previously extremely bare and gave a solid and harsh impression due to the heavy walls (Figure 3.16).
Figure 3.16: A Painting titled “Streets of Cairo” by the architect Owen Browne Carter, which shows the Mashrabiya in 1800’s (https://tr.pinterest.com/pin/322288917055712886/)
The more complicated and detailed the Mashrabiya is, the more expensive it is; that is why it became highly desirable as a symbol of wealth. In this way the decorative features of the Mashrabiya became something of a social statement. Additionally, it should not be ignored that the Mashrabiya is an important expression of Eastern identity.
Spatiality
The traditional Mashrabiya provides an important property of being directional or maintaining a configuration, conformation, contour, form, shape and any spatial attributes (especially as defined by outline) to create a space which can be used for many functions as mentioned before, like a seat for the ladies to overlook outside , or to put a jar of water to get cool.
Patterns of Mashrabiya
The patterns of Mashrabiya were composed of simple geometric shapes, and often ewer or calligraphy designs from the Quran.
Speaking of patterns of Mashrabiya, Fathy confirmed the existence of different patterns of Mashrabiya and each has a name in his book, but these were not discussed in detail. It seems likely that the arabesque craft was so widespread that the names were traded just like fashion and at the time everyone knew these names. It did not occur to anyone that the day might come when Mashrabiya would go out of fashion and lose many of its features as well as the traded names.
While orientalists mentioned some names, architectural researchers referred to others and Fathy pointed out some others through his explanation of lighting. Also some theses mentioned the models, but only gave descriptions. However there was no subtitle to go under the title of Mashrabiya patterns that presents a clear, full and detailed explanation. Therefore this study aims, as far as possible, to bring together a total, documented and full reference for all the names of patterns that were previously mentioned randomly.
From the aforementioned, it is obvious that the functional role of the Mashrabiya requires a full understanding in order to choose the appropriate distances between the balusters and their diameter. Thus various patterns of Mashrabiya were produced, that were known by a variety of names.
Naturally, the names have regional variations, as with the detailing and style of Mashrabiya that changed between countries. However, it is important to note that functionally the Mashrabiya always performed the same role.
The lattice was distinctive in its intricacy and delicacy, creating the style which is most commonly recognized as true ‘Mashrabiya’
The patterns of Mashrabiya were composed of simple geometric shapes, and often ewer or calligraphy designs from the Quran, because of the prohibition in the religion of Islam of the portrayal of any living being (Feeney, 1974). Besides, the simple shapes are easy to construct by manual way.
The major technical feature of the construction of the Mashrabiya as a climate regulator element, where the distances between the interstices, the size and volume of the balusters, all directly affect glare and temperature, as well as the level of humidity and airflow within the building (Fathy, 1986) .
Additionally, there is a close relationship between geometry and Islamic art in general, on the one hand, and calligraphy on the other.
“The works of Islamic art…can be identified, described, and judged according to a relatively small number of principles which form their essence. One of these principles is geometry, which therefore became a whole book. The second premise is a reluctance to deal with history, to accept even incompatible varieties or irreversible changes as expressive of cultural wealth rather than a regrettable weakness.
”
Some researchers, in referring to the names of some of the common patterns of lattices, have named the different design styles in the following way:
The Hexagon (Figure 3.18) (Spencer, 1990)
The Church or (Kanaysi in Arabic): the design consists of long, narrow balusters which are assembled vertically, and the shape of the turned baluster looks like the legs of a pigeon (Figures 3.19- 3.20) (Ashi, 2010).
The Maymoni pattern is attributed to a town called Maymoniya in Egypt, it is a perpendicular mesh, and its balusters have squared sections in some areas and rounded sections in other areas (Figures 3.21- 3.22) (Ashi, 2010).
The Cross pattern is made of short round balusters which are assembled diagonally, vertically and horizontally (Figures 3.23- 3.24) (Ashraf, 1983).
The Sahrigi (Cistern turnery) pattern is attributed to a town called Sahrig in Egypt. This pattern includes large balusters in a wide mesh, and it is used in the upper part of the Mashrabiya, as mentioned in (3.2) (Fathy, 1986) (Figure 3.25).
In addition, depending on the relative skills of the craftsmen, there are some very complicated patterns of Mashrabiya that consist of up to 2000 pieces to one square yard. (Spencer, 1990) Figure 3.26 shows some of them.
Figure 3.18: The Hexagon Pattern of Mashrabiya (http://patterninislamicart.com/archive/main/2/india/ind0630)
Figure 3.19: The Church Pattern of Mashrabiya (Luxury crafts, 2011)
Figure 3.20: Notice the shape of the baluster in the Church pattern, how it looks like the legs of a pigeon (Luxury crafts, 2011)
Figure 3.21: The Maymoni Pattern of Mashrabiya (Luxury crafts, 2011)
Figure 3.22: The Maymoni Pattern works sometimes like the Sahrigi Pattern in the wide mesh that is provided, especially when it is used in the upper part of Mashrabiya (Luxury crafts, 2011)
Figure 3.23: The Cross Pattern of Mashrabiya (Luxury crafts, 2011)
Figure 3.24: The cross pattern with different colored wood and small spacing (Luxury crafts, 2011)
Figure 3.25: Mashrabiya at Jamal al-Din alZahabi’s house which shows the increase in the spacing between the balusters in the Sahrigi Pattern in the upper part (Fathy, 1986)
Figure 3.26: Some styles of screens (Jean, 1976)
Highly skilled craftsmen are able to integrate different patterns in the same Mashrabiya (Figures 3.27- 3.31).
Figure 3.27: Mashrabiya with the Maymoni and the Church Patterns (Luxury crafts, 2011)
Figure 3.28: Mashrabiya with Cross and Church Patterns (Luxury crafts, 2011)
Figure 3.29: Mashrabiya with a Sahrigi pattern in the upper part and a Maymoni pattern in the lower one – Gayer Anderson House, Cairo-Egypt (Alothman, 2016)
Figure 3.30: Mashrabiya with different patterns at AlSuhaimi House in Cairo - Egypt (Alothman, 2016)
Figure 3.31: Mashrabiya with three types of patterns together (Alothman, 2016)
It is important to reaffirm that not all prominent windows are Mashrabiya. There should be one pattern at least, for example in the Figure 3.32 which is just a prominent window with normal wooden shutters, indicating that it has no Mashrabiya functions.
Figure 3.32: A prominent window with normal wooden shutters, therefore not Mashrabiya (https://totemscity.files.wordpress.com/2011/03/masjidaytimishareadsc_0674.jpg)
Geometry and parameters of Mashrabiya
Samuels (2011) offered a number of rules and mathematical formulae for the optimal design of the Mashrabiya lattice, by analyzing traditional construction methods. These rules can be used to design the perfect lattice of Mashrabiya to ensure the optimum internal conditions, regardless of the geographic location or programmatic requirements.
Geometry of Mashrabiya
Perforation Ratio (PP): This is the ratio between the area of the opening and to the whole area of the screen (Sherif et al., 2012).
Depth Ratio (DR): It is the ratio between the depth and the width of each perforation opening (Sherif et al., 2012).
Parameters of the Mashrabiya
After learning about the importance of functions and patterns of Mashrabiya, it is necessary to understand what are the determined terms of its parameters relating to length, angle and section of each baluster, along with the sectional layers and baluster offset (Figure 3.33).
Samuels (2011) offered a number of rules and mathematical formulae for the optimal design of the Mashrabiya lattice, by analyzing traditional construction methods. This constituted an important step towards catching up with the variable production methodology nowadays, as we will see in next chapter. These rules can be used to design the perfect lattice of Mashrabiya to ensure the optimum internal conditions, regardless of the geographic location or programmatic requirements.
Figure 3.33: Traditional Mashrabiya Typology. (Samuels, 2011)
Baluster Diameter/Length ratio
The ratio between the baluster (Figure 3.34) diameter and length (D/L Ratio) was traditionally used to determine two important issues:
The functional features of the Mashrabiya, and the porosity of the lattice are directly influenced by this.
The exact time of year in which direct sunlight enters the internal space, which defines the critical moment when the temperature of room switches from cool to hot.
If this is too soon in the year, the internal space will become dramatically overheated and uncomfortable. If it is too late, the internal space will be bitterly cold during the winter – and equally uncomfortable.
It is well known that direct sunlight controls the thermal environment of a building, and the porosity of the lattice adjusts it. The porosity is subservient to the D/L Ratio which is calculated through the formula [D/L =Cosθ1]; a sun altitude angle is (θ1) (Figure 3.35) (Samuels, 2011).
Figure 3.34: Illustration of (D/L Ratio) (Samuels, 2011)
Figure 3.35: Illustration of the formula [D/L =Cosθ1] for baluster design (Samuels, 2011)
Baluster angle
Mornings are generally a lot cooler than the rest of day, so it is necessary to introduce sunlight into the room during the morning. The calculation of the precise angle on both the horizontal and the vertical balusters determines what time of day the sunlight enters the room, thus ensuring the correct daily solar gain. But the determination of the established angle was not something that was possible or easy to achieve in the traditional construction of the Mashrabiya, as it depended on the skills of the craftsman and ‘trial and error’ testing.
Samuels in his research explored exactly what angle is required, providing an accurate example in his case study (information coming from the Giles Weather Station in Australia), by using shading masks, which he changed from a symmetrical shape to one that favors the morning or evening sun, then he applied this to the stereographic temperature graph (Figure 3.36).
“ .. and by incorporating the established D/L ratio an accurate shading diagram can be formed which will precisely map the times of the year in which complete shading is provided by the Mashrabiya.”
Figure 3.36: Baluster angle analysis in Samuels’s study (in Giles Weather Station- Australia) (Samuels, 2011)
Baluster section
According to traditional construction, the section of the baluster should be circular for many functional requirements which are related to the adjustment of glare and airflow (Fathy, 1986). Therefore any alterations in the shape of the baluster section should be derived from the circular section to provide the same important requirements. It should be noted that changing the section of each baluster alters the angle at which sunlight enters the room, meaning modifications must be made to the D/L ratio calculations in order to compensate.
“A reduction in the baluster width will increase the PF value, increasing the amount of ambient light and air passing through the screen. The PF value has to be high enough to allow adequate ambient light to enter the space for normal activities to occur.”
As mentioned before, the porosity of the Mashrabiya lattice controls the solar gain, glare and the airflow. In addition, this porosity factor (PF or φ ) describes the ratio of open lattice to that which is filled with balusters (Figure 3.37).
“PF can be calculated by dividing the total area of the opening by the total area of the interstices. A PF of 1 is equivalent to an opening without a Mashrabiya, i.e. 100% porosity.”
Figure 3.37: Baluster section analysis (Samuels, 2011)
Sectional layers
Traditionally Mashrabiya consisted of just one layer of lattice, but nowadays (Figure 3.38) with contemporary processes of construction, it has become possible to produce new models of Mashrabiya with double layers using a computer numerically controlled (CNC) router. After many tests, much research, 3D modeling and computer simulations, it became apparent that:
The optimal number of layers is two.
The important benefits of the extra layer are:
1 - An increase in the amount of solar gain within the building:
It alters the way light passes through the lattice during winter, although it is still possible to use the previously defined D/L ratio, baluster angle and sectional shape as a basis for the lattice.
“in winter there are points at which the interstices of each layer directly line up with the angle of the sun.”
2- A reduction in glare
“The first layer of balusters, that which is closest to the outside, benefits from light reflected off the second layer of balusters, thus reducing the amount of shadows across its surface. This creates a two-tiered transition between the interior and exterior, greatly reducing both the visual contrast and the glare.”
3- Creation of a more visually dynamic surface
“The intricacy and delicacy of the screens were a visual wonder, and any contemporary interpretation must express those qualities to do any level of justice to the original form. The use of additional layers within the Mashrabiya comfortably achieves that by adding to the visual intrigue and spectacle of the screen.”
Figure 3.38: Sectional layer analysis (Samuels, 2011)
Baluster offset
This describes the degree to which the two layers of the lattice line up. The possible offset of the layers is a way in which the airflow or lighting in the room is not directly affected, in contrast to the privacy matter; the offsetting gives more or less control to the designer. Whereas the visual porosity in this case changes, relying upon the position in which a person stands and the angle at which he looks at the lattice (Figure 3.39).
“For the offset to ensure that the direct light is not affected precision is required. The vertical offset needs to be matched by a horizontal offset, the ratio of which has been found to be determined by the equation [X1 /X2= 2Y1 /(Y1+Y2)] , ensuring that the solar gains are kept constant.”
Figure 3.39: Baluster offset analysis (Samuels, 2011)
Supplemental parameters of Mashrabiya related to the potentiality of reflected sunlight
Aljofi (2005) published a research study concerning the effects of the Mashrabiya screen on reflected sunlight. The results of the experiment were:
The effect of the baluster shape in the screen:
The light is lower in the case of the rounded shape than in other complicated shapes.
The effect of the size of the screen baluster:
In both vertical and horizontal positions of the balusters, the contributed reflected light is increased in the lattice with large diameter balusters, than in the lattice with smaller diameter balusters. This is due to the ratio of open to closed parts of the lattice.
The effect of surface reflection of the screen:
The contributed light from the light Oak wood lattice is more than in other types of wood, by an average of 17% .
Materiality and Construction of Mashrabiya
Wood is the main traditional material used for the construction of Mashrabiya, due to its advantages in the adjustment of internal shadows, reduction of glare, toleration of high temperatures and finally, its effect on humidity buffering and cooling the airflow. Mashrabiya can be made of different materials: Marble, Natural stone, Plaster and Brick.
The Traditional Materiality and Construction of Mashrabiya
Wood is the main traditional material used for the construction of Mashrabiya, as can be seen in chapter 3, due to its advantages in the adjustment of internal shadows, reduction of glare, toleration of high temperatures and finally, its effect on humidity buffering and cooling the airflow. In Egypt, where wood turnery in general and Mashrabiya in particular is considered a deeply-rooted craft, the Egyptian government website displays information about the different types of wood used and the craft of word turning.
Craftsmanship
As mentioned in chapter 2, the Copts in 13th century Egypt inherited the craft of wood turnery, especial the Mashrabiya, from their forefathers. Later the craft was developed by master craftsmen who exhibited woodwork of their own creativity using artistic or geometric shapes.
In Rashid (Rossetta) houses, the Mashrabiya was decorated on the side walls with beautiful ornamentation; the craftsmen also partitioned the Mashrabiya into numerous turned woodwork units with fanciful designs, which display Islamic words or symbols (Figure 4.1) (Wood Turnery. SIS Publications, 2014).
Figure 4.1: Image of Mashrabiya at Gayer Anderson Museum House, with Arabic writing, in Cairo, Egypt (Alothman, 2016)
Different types of wood
The Mashrabiya was made originally from one of three kinds of wood, pine, walnut or beech; but the craftsmen did not only use local types of wood, they also imported various other types, like : Walnut, oak and walnut from Europe and West Asia and ebony wood from Somalia, South Sudan and Ethiopia (Wood Turnery. SIS Publications, 2014).
There are many types of wood which are used in traditional Mashrabiya (Figure 4.2):
Types of wood according to their origin:
1- Local wood:
Sant wood is tough, rigid and has a reddish color, which changes in time. It is similar to ebony.
Mulberry wood has a yellowish color and contains red circles. It is tough and has condensed fibers. It may be be used in turnery as its surface can be polished.
Tamarind wood has a white, yellowish color.
Nut wood and Nabk wood were considered the favored types for Mashrabiya.
Guava, lemon, sycamore, olive, date and willow wood are used in turnery as well, having different ornamental colors.
2- Imported wood:
Imported wood includes mild workable types and tough rigid types.
A- Mild Workable: Known as Mosky or Swedish, it is a practicable wood comprised of red pine and yellow pine.
B- Tough Rigid wood: This includes beech and ebony.
Beech wood is preferred because it is flexible; it is essentially white, yellowish in color, but turns to reddish yellow after dehydration.
Ebony has many types with different colors: black, brown, red and green. It is a solid, hard wood and used in the turnery of Mashrabiya.
Types of wood according to turnery size:
1- Large Turnery : This type of turnery contains Cistern turnery (Sahrigi pattern) which is used in the Mashrabiya in order to allow air and light to enter inside the building.
2- Fine Turnery: known as Mashrabiya Turnery.
Mashrabiya Turnery is of different sizes; the names of the patterns are explained in the previous chapter.
Figure 4.2: Types of wood which were used in construction of traditional Mashrabiya (Alothman, 2016)
Traditional tools and machinery
During ancient times, Mashrabiya were constructed manually using various types of chisels (Figure 4.3), along with an important machine which is called a bow lathe, the machine had a primitive shape (Figures 4.4- 4.6). The craftsman used only the skew chisel to model a piece of wood, while turning it on a lathe (Figures 4.7- 4.8).
Figure 4.3: Manual Turning Tools, the chisels (http://www.robert-sorby.co.uk/)
Figure 4.4: Image of the first evidence of a lathe (http://www.theegyptianchronicles.com/Article/KHIRAATAH.html)
Figure 4.5: a bow lathe illustration (Usher, 1929)
Figure 4.6: a more developed bow lathe (Usher, 1929)
Figure 4.7: A craftsman in Cairo turning the long primary balusters on a lathe (Samuels, 2011)
Figure 4.8: The traditional craft of Mashrabiya depended on the use of lathing tools (http://qanzaman.blogspot.com.cy/2013/01/blog-post_9979.html)
The machine was replaced later by an electric version (Figure 4.9), to keep up with the concept of design sophistication and mass production. Even an electric lathe is considered a traditional tool (Figure 4.10), compared with the digital design and CNC milling tools which are used nowadays to construct the Mashrabiya, using a setup program without the need of a worker nearby.
Figure 4.9: The electric lathe (http://www.preetlathe.com)
Figure 4.10: An image of an electric lathe machine (Almerbati et al., 2016)
The traditional construction
The craftsman turned each rod with the lathe to the length and thickness required, starting with a chain of long elementary balusters which could be between 100 mm to a meter in length, depending on the details and the scale of the final Mashrabiya, in this way he would establish the basic framework of the lattice (Figures 4.11- 4.14) (Akbar, 1994).
Figure 4.11: A sketch showing the traditional craftsman’s position during the wood turning process (Ishinan, 1979)
Figure 4.12: A sketch of the craftsman using his bare foot to turn the baluster on the lathe (Ishinan, 1979)
Figure 4.13: A sketch of a detail of turning work (Ishinan, 1979)
Figure 4.14: A sketch of latticework (Ishinan, 1979)
The turned balusters were used to make a series of cylindrical lengths which were peppered periodically with connection points to the lateral balusters. These points are shaped as larger cubic pieces (Maymoni pattern), spherical pieces (Sahrigi pattern) or mixed peices (cross pattern). The craftsman would drill a hole into each of the connection points, where the shorter secondary baluster fitted (Figure 4.15). As a result a connection was created without using nails or glue, (Figures 4.16- 4.17) (Briggs, 1974).
Figure 4.15: How the craftsman drills a hole into each connection point (Ishinan, 1979)
Figure 4.16: A small part of Mashrabiya is connected inside without glue or nails (Luxury crafts, 2011)
Figure 4.17: The complex geometric structure of the Mashrabiya screen (Benedetti et al., 2010)
Once a mesh of balusters had been made, it was enclosed within a frame to strengthen it. The frame works also as a structural element, since the gravity is spread and the stress of wind blowing throughout the length of the lattice avoids damaging any individual balusters. By altering the diameter and length of each baluster, the craftsman can adjust the climatic conditions of the internal space. The determination of these sizes was decided by the individual craftsman using his experience of the traditional production process.
Other Materials For Mashrabiya
Given that the basic material to construct Mashrabiya is wood, any alternative material needs to have similar properties to wood; it should be strong, easily reproduced in quantity, and able to cope with extremes of humidity and temperature, at the same time capable of expressing a certain softness.
However, there are many examples of Mashrabiya which were made of different materials like:
Marble, in Indian tombs (Figure 4.18a); it was effective in the cooling function and light adjustment, but concerning humidity control it does not have the same properties as wood.
Natural stone is used in Mashrabiyas of mosques and old castles in Spain, Iran and Cyprus (Figure 4.18b).
Plaster can be found in some palaces in Egypt (Figure 4.18c).
Brick, which Fathy used it to construct Mashrabiya in some projects in Egypt (Figure 4.18d). In his books he does not mention brick as an alternative material for Mashrabiya. However he frequently used brick in the façade designs of his projects, which were described as Mashrabiya.
Hybrid Parametric of Mashrabiya and the 3D Digital Craftsmen
The use of computer numerically controlled (CNC) milling devices, now a common form of digital fabrication, gives a much higher degree of accuracy, speed and versatility than was previously possible using hand driven lathes.
Technology nowadays causes alterations in the methodology of constructional pruduction, thus creating a major number of variables in Mashrabiya manufacture.
“The use of computer numerically controlled (CNC) milling devices, now a common form of digital fabrication, gives a much higher degree of accuracy, speed and versatility than was previously possible using hand driven lathes. By using a flip-bed CNC system, where a block is cut, flipped and a matching cut is made on the other side, a screen of almost any possible shape can be made. This means that the individual section, shape and dimension of each baluster can be precisely defined to provide the optimal climatic and spatial control.”
This means that more advanced turning machines are available in the design and production process, such as CNC Wood Turning Lathe, (Figure 4.19) which allows a choice of design by entering numeric values to the computerized memory for turning wood. This cuts the need for expending a great deal of time and manpower, as found in the tradional fabrication process (Figure 4.20).
Figure 4.19: The CKX-600/1300/1600 CNC Wood Turning Lathe (http://en.intorex.com/1674/cnc-wood-turning-lathes-ckx-600-1300-1600#ad-image-2832)
Figure 4.20: The CNX is a fully automatic CNC wood turning lathe (http://en.intorex.com/1674/cnc-wood-turning-lathes-ckx-600-1300-1600#ad-image-2832)
Almerbati et al. (2016) in their research about the hybrid Mashrabiya, supported the importance of CIM and CNC Mashrabiya model of Samuels’s thesis (Figures 4.21- 4.23) and his final result:
“Even if the final result was not aesthetically significant, the process and the product created utilized modern CIM and CNC technology that was not available to local craftsmen.”
Figure 4.21: Test patterns by William Samuels (Samuels, 2011)
(a) Basic Mashrabiya component.
(b) Component tiling arrangement.
(c) 3D Structural bracing layer.
(d) Joint connection detail.
(e) Misting Spray Points.
Figure 4.22: Development of Samuels’ CIM and CNC Mashrabiya Component (Samuels, 2011)
Figure 4.23: Component Tessellations of development of Samuels’ CIM and CNC (Samuels, 2011)
Almerbati et al. (2016) followed Samuels’ experience to explore new hybrid parametrics of Mashrabiya, and they pointed out that as traditional craftsmen persevered in understanding the kinds of wood and tools to be used, digital craftsmen seek to master the art of how to convert the functional limitations of different types of technology and new machines, into the contemporary digital construction that controls their careers. When digital craftsmen study the history of Mashrabiya, they can inform the traditional mathematical and geometrical patterns with functional design parameters which can be controlled by graphic algorithmic modelers. The geometric dimensions are improved through the use of T- Splines (Figures 4.24- 4.25).
Figure 4.24: 3D printing enables the production of parts that cannot be made in any other fashion, 10 cm by 10 cm test prints of Mashrabiya screen modular units using Form 1 printer (Almerbati et al., 2016)
Figure 4.25: Images of 3D-printed Laser Sintered Plastic for Focus Group Consideration in Bahrain (Almerbati et al., 2016)
“3D printing is selected as the ideal manufacturing process, as, at times, these constructions achieve a complexity that extends beyond multi-axis CNC milling…. since these parameters have been programmed dynamically, the culture is able to evolve through the dynamic modification of the parameter model. Furthermore, as more cultural or functional variables (architectural programming, for example) emerge and are programmed into future instantiations of the Parameter Mashrabiya, the resultant forms will continue to evolve alongside the culture. In addition, the advantage of the units’ shape is linked to the fact that they can be digitally crafted to fit various patterns from both 2D surfaces and complex 3D interlaced geometries, some of which are too highly complex to be created using other mould-based manufacturing techniques.”
The Additive Manufacturing (AM) of Mashrabiya
AM is the procedure of solidifying powder or liquid by using a melting laser or a binding agent. It saves time and transportation costs related to importing fundamental materials. It provides the ability to produce three-dimensional elements or objects from models, or from computer controlled additive processes. It provides mass customization, flexible shapes and affordability.
AM is the procedure of solidifying powder or liquid by using a melting laser or a binding agent (Jon and Nathan, 2010). This process has some advantiges :
It saves time and transporation costs related to importing fundamental materials.
It provides the ability to produce three dimentionl elements or objects from models, or from computer controlled additive processes.
It provides mass customization, flexible shapes and affordability (Wittbrodt et al., 2013).
Almerbati et al. (2014) in the research titled “The value of additively manufactured window screens in Middle Eastern dwellings” described by Postler and Ferguson Company as pioneers in the AM field (Figures 4.26- 4.27).
“the company proposed using additive manufacturing or 3D printing as a substitute for the intensive tooling needed and to free the design from any milling constraints. Their final sand products for public space usage were based on a three-dimensional interpretation of a Mashrabiya latticework design… Postler and Ferguson have hinted that AM Mashrabiyas have never been produced before or researched.”
Figure 4.26: The giant 6m bed D-shape printed (Almerbati et al., 2014)
Figure 4.27: The Microclimates (Almerbati et al., 2014)
Shape – Variable Mashrabiya (SVM)
This is a system which is formed by three identical opaque backscattering shields, filled with a pattern inspired by the Mashrabiya. It effectively blocks direct light, along with converting a part of it into diffuse reflected light, so as to enhance the comfortable daylight in the room space. It diminishes the overheating problem. It provides good visual comfort.
This is a system which is formed by three identical opaque backscattering shields, filled with a pattern inspired by the Mashrabiya. It is considered an adaptive daylighting and shading system, due to the ability of its shields to move relative to each other, in order to switch between a closed situation in the case of direct sunlight (Figure 4.28a) and an open situation when skylight prevails (Figure 4.28b) (Giovannini et al., 2015).
Figure 4.28: Images of the SVM (Giovannini et al., 2015)
The SVM advantages:
It effectively blocks direct light, along with converting a part of it into diffuse reflected light, so as to enhance the comfortable daylight in the room space.
It diminishes the overheating problem, therefore it performs better than other technologies used for the control of sunlight, especially in Middle East region.
It provides good visual comfort, in terms of glare adjustment; moreover it offers some aesthetic value (Giovannini et al., 2015).
The Revival of Mashrabiya in Contemporary Architecture
In recent decades, a lot of architects found alternative solutions to keep pace with modernity and yet benefit from the cultural heritage. Thus Mashrabiya became one of the leading environmental traditional and architectural elements that have been re-used in the field of architecture, which is widespread, but especially found in Arab Gulf countries which have a hot, harsh climate.
Architecture passed through many notable changes since the beginning of the twentieth century; the industrial revolution and the globalization movement have played a key role in shifting away from the important elements in traditional architecture, like Mashrabiya.
Some of these changes were helpful and others were unfavorable, in particular with regard to globalization, which damaged the cultural identity of peoples, along with the industrial revolution and the trend for the use of materials and structural systems which were not considered eco-friendly.
In recent decades these issues have forced a lot of architects to find alternative solutions to keep pace with modernity and yet benefit from the cultural heritage. Thus Mashrabiya became one of the leading environmental traditional and architectural elements that have been revived. This has meant a re-focusing on the study of its concept and functions to employ it through the most effective images, and thus adopting it in contemporary projects, by using a high-tech interpretation of the original model, or through a contemporary expression of the original model.
Factors of Mashrabiya revival
There are three main factors that have led to the re-use of Mashrabiya in the field of architecture, which is widespread, but especially found in Arab Gulf countries which have a hot, harsh climate (Figure 5.1).
Figure 5.1: Factors influencing the Mashrabiya revival (Alothman, 2016)
The disadvantage of the alternative solution
As mentioned in the first chapter, air conditioners were alternative solutions to the Mashrabiya at the beginning of the industrial revolution and the spread of the globalization movement. But the idea, unfortunately, has failed in some way, due to the fact that air conditioners require a lot of energy and have expensive running costs, compared to Mashrabiya, that have proven highly effective for many years in several fields. They were not limited to the task of cooling alone, but also controlling the light, humidity, airflow, visual privacy, along with aesthetic and social properties, which mechanically driven cooling cannot provide.
In many of these [hot climate] countries, air-conditioning accounts for more than 70% of the national electrical power consumption. However, less than a century ago, the inhabitants of these countries lived in buildings that incorporated only natural-cooling (i.e. far cheaper) techniques for achieving thermal comfort (Batty et al. 1991).
“When the modern architect replaced these decorative elements with air-conditioning equipment, he created a large vacuum in his culture. He has become like a football player playing football with a cannon. If the purpose of the game is scoring goals, then assuredly he can score a goal with every shot. But the game itself will disappear, and so will any diversion for the spectators, except perhaps in the killing of the goalkeeper.”
Hassan Fathy theories
Thanks to the revered architect Hassan Fathy (Figure 5.2), a resurgence of interest in Mashrabiya has taken place. He did a great deal of research on the origins of traditional architecture and he extracted many important lessons and ideas, which he benefited from later in his architectural applications. Fathy worked on reviving the heritage values and concepts at the level of the foundations, not only as modal vocabularies, but he included in his methodological philosophy the study of history and the advantages of the old tradition in its ability to adapt these principles and experiences intergenerationally, while not losing sight of the present and its requirements, and thus his methodology is logical, acceptable and valid.
He also praised the necessity of dealing with the appropriate technology in order to maintain development, and the need avoid neglecting social factors, as well as the importance of the role of heritage, and the need to re-dedicate the national and local identity through architecture.
Many of his writings reflect his own philosophy towards heritage, the contemporary Arabic architecture and modernity in general, which can be summarized in a set of main points:
To Fathy, heritage means all inherited experiences and a group of "decisions" that have been taken to solve specific problems in a certain period of history, then those decisions were developed and adapted to serve a community purpose, and the community accepted them unanimously, in stages. Thus they became a relatively constant part of the heritage.
In Fathy’s vision of modernity, he believed that modernity does not necessarily mean vitality, and that change is not always for the better. Modernity versus heritage as seen by Fathy is to “co-exist at the same time with the other". This concept is in line with the theses of many thinkers in the philosophy of tradition and modernity. It means that modernity does not necessarily include a conscious choice and the exclusion of traditional solutions does not always create evolution (Alsayied, 2010).
Fathy considered that there is considerable confusion and misuse of the idea of modernity based on chronology; Western architecture subscribed to modernity because it was the most recent in time, compared to Arab architecture to which is attributed the idea of failure, due to its ancient history and originality.
With the appearance of the sustainable architecture trend, Fathy gave a strong foundation for the return of traditional architectural elements, especially the Mashrabiya. He deemed that traditional architecture is closer to the natural environment rather than the global architecture that swept through the Arab world. The traditional one, in his view, respects and observes the natural environment and all spatial, temporal and social circumstances; it also reflects the requirements and needs of the cultural and civilizational reality.
In his book (Natural Energies and Environmental Architecture,1986) he shows many of the experiments that he conducted using the traditional vocabularies in the Arab house, like the Mashrabiya; from a scientific basis he studied wind speed and temperature in different parts of Arab houses as examples. He worked hard in his research to include the extent of the complexity of the thermal problems and capabilities of thermal insulation which were achieved in the simplest traditional houses. These buildings efficiently took into account the harsh climatic nature and at the same time preserved the cultural values of local communities and reduced the adverse effect on the environment.
Figure 5.2: The Architect Hassan Fathy (Alsayied, 2010)
Mashrabiya as a powerful environmental element
There is multiple, duplicated research concerning the green roof, that makes it seem that it is the only environmental element in current sustainable architecture, while in fact, the Mashrabiya can also play an important part in this field.
This fallacy is partly due to the fact that the studies regarding Mashrabiya were mostly historical and regurgitated theory, scattered and not focused, instead of being practical and more related to direct implementation.
Modern Mashrabiya, the magic of the East and the dynamism of the West, will become an architectural element that is capable of becoming a new feature in sustainable architecture.
The economic and the socio-cultural variables in the Arab region within the recent years, and the ideological and cultural openness to the Western world, has led to sustainability becoming an unavoidable trend in Arab countries.
This trend has taken different modes of expression, which were known as sub trends: modern technology, the neo-traditional, and the contemporary interpretation trend (Abdelsalam and Rihan, 2012). These trends have had a noticeable effect on the Arab architectural identity.
At this point, it is important to point out that the Mashrabiya is presented through contemporary sustainable designs in three ways:
Firstly; it is offered in its original traditional style, using the traditional shape, materials, and characteristics.
Secondly; its concept is displayed through a high-tech solution, where the main function is achieved by using advanced technological means.
Thirdly; a contemporary interpretation of the traditional model is presented relying on new materials, styles and features, while maintaining its original concept (Abdelsalam and Rihan, 2012).
Mashrabiya in Contemporary Architecture
Often the modern Mashrabiya has been re-used in accordance with three notable forms, including the primitive form, the sustainable form, and the form provided with advanced technology.
Arab World Institute was the first project that used a developed version of Mashrabiya, and even if at first sight its facade might seem as an Arabic decorative, but it is not at the same level with the high perfection in style and craftsmanship of the traditional version .
Compared to the Mashrabiya House in Palestine, there is a huge difference in details, patterns and concept. While in Masdar City, UAE, the modern Mashrabiya was similar to traditional Mashrabiya, without high technology, but by using the large section for balusters. Modern Mashrabiya in many shapes and expressions met with great popular in UAE through a lot of projects such as Abu Dhabi Central Market and Al Bahar Towers / Mashrabiya Towers. The new Mashrabiya has also a widespread within Arab Gulf countries like Doha Tower in Qatar and Ali Mohammed T. Al-Ghanim Clinic in Kuwait.
And the interesting project is Manish Restaurant in Brazil which used the concept of Mashrabiya and mentioned to the Arab inspiration of its facade design.
The five projects will only be reviewed:
Arab World Institute which is designed by Jean Nouvel (1987) in France.
Abu Dhabi Central Market which is designed by Foster + Partners (2014) in United Arab Emirates.
Doha Tower is designed by Jean Nouvel (2012) in Qatar.
Ali Mohammed T. Al-Ghanim Clinic is designed by AGi architects (2014) in
Kuwait.
Manish Resturant is designed by ODVO architects (2011) in Brazil.
The study will be focus on three important examples, they will be discussed in detail, and supplied with general important comments to evaluate the various modern versions of Mashrabiya. Often the modern Mashrabiya has been re-used in accordance with three notable forms, including: the primitive form, the sustainable form, and the form provided with advanced technology. Using these categories, the three projects under discussion are selected as examples (Table 5.1).
Table 5.1: Notable forms of modern Mashrabiya and the chosen examples (Alothman, 2016)
The methodology of study of chosen examples will be as following: The architect’s opinion about his project will be displayed firstly, and supplied with important figures of the project to compare them to traditional examples of Mashrabiya, and to assist in evaluating each project according with the explanations of functions, patterns, materials and different aspects of optimal Mashrabiya.
The results of this process are recommended to take seriously, because there are numerous contemporary projects which are under construction and are using the modern Mashrabiya in various ways. These projects are designed by very famous architects like Foster, Zaha and Nouvel, and have an acceptability related to these famous architects; but that only gives an excuse for an abundant number of small, local projects to copy the same mistakes of these well-known projects with regard to the misuse of Mashrabiya and its conversion to a purely decorative element, given that none of the large projects achieve all the functions of Mashrabiya, as will be seen in the discussions of these projects.
Methodology of the evaluative study (Alothman,2016)
Arab World Institute
The project is located in Paris, France, completed in 1987 and designed by Jean Nouvel, Architecture-Studio, Pierre Soria and Gilbert Lezenes. The main reason to construct this institute was to create a destination devoted to the relationship between Arab culture and France.
Arab World Institute in Paris, France (Fessy, 2011)
Nouvel was inspired by the details of façades from Mashrabiya, he used its concept to create a shield for the building which uses a technological system containing 27,000 light sensitive diaphragms. The function of these diaphragms is the same as the Mashrabiya lattice function that regulates the amount of light which can enter the building.
The screen is inspired by Mashrabiya in the Arab World Institute, Paris, France (Michler, 2010)
“Visible behind the glass wall, a metallic screen unfolds with moving geometric motifs.
The motifs are actually 240 photo-sensitive motor-controlled apertures, or shutters,
which act as a sophisticated brise soleil that automatically opens and closes to control
the amount of light and heat entering the building from the sun. The mechanism creates
interior spaces with filtered light — an effect often used in Islamic architecture with its
climate-oriented strategies.”
Detail illustration of one unit in the façade of the Arab World Institute (Michler, 2010)
An image showing the complex details of the construction of one part of the façade of the institute (James, 1987)
An internal detail of the façade (James, 1987)
An external detail of the façade (James, 1987)
A detail of the light sensitive diaphragm (James, 1987)
The architect in this project benefited from the Mashrabiya only in the intricacies and patterns, though the façades with the sensitive diaphragms can filter the light and ensure the visual spectacle. However, they did not play the same efficient role as the traditional Mashrabiya, with regard to the other important functions of airflow and temperature adjustment.
The use of glass walls prevents the airflow through the building, and that gives rise to static thermal zones; consequently the internal spaces are required to be climatically adjusted by HVAC units “cooling devices”.
At first the structure of the building might seem like an Arabic embellishment, but its functions derive from filtering the daylight dynamically, depending on certain weather conditions.
An image showing the glass curtain walls (Fessy, 2011)
Interior view of the library in Arab World Institute (Fessy, 2011)
In this image it can be seen that electric light is used along with natural light during the day, while in the past the traditional Mashrabiya provided enough light for all daily activities.
An interior view of one unit in the Arab World Institute (Fessy, 2011)
Abu Dhabi Central Market
The project is located in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates, and was designed by Foster + Partners (2014). This Central Market is one of the oldest sites in the city.
The objective of the design was to create a market building inspired by the traditional architecture of the Arab Gulf, to give the city a new civic heart, by presenting an alternative to the globalised one-size-fits-all shopping mall it, and to provide a featured contemporary interpretation of the local vernacular (Foster + Partners, 2011).
“Inspired by the traditional architecture of the Middle East,.. different experiences are
brought together in a sensory interior palette of dappled sunlight, warm woods, colours
and running water. An intimate sequence of streets, alleys, courtyards, balconies and
colonnades dissolve barriers between inside and outside, with flexible sliding roofs and
walls to enable control of internal environments.... Layers of internal shading on the
towers control glare and solar gain.”
Abu Dhabi Central Market, designed by Foster + Partners (Young, 2014)
A view showing the pattern which Foster developed with a scholar of Islamic arts (Young, 2014)
The beautiful interior of Abu Dhabi Central Market (Young, 2014)
It is important to state that the architect did not mention façades in this project using the name Mashrabiya, although it seems that he found inspiration and a lot of functional advantages in the traditional Mashrabiya.
Doha Tower
The project is located in Doha, Qatar, completed in 2012 and designed by the French architect Jean Nouvel. The building is a massive, rounded cylindrical skyscraper that is characterized by internal reinforced concrete dia-grid columns, while the entire façade is covered with metal brise-soleil based on traditional Mashrabiya.
Doha Tower in Qatar (Garrido, 2010)
Nouvel created an innovative design for the façade by using the linear patterns of Mashrabiya and rotating its geometry module then flipping it, to create a massive screen which can fracture the sunlight and insure maximum shading for the internal spaces.
“The design for the system involved using a single geometric motif at several scales,
overlaid at different densities along the façade. The overlays occur in response to the
solar conditions: 25% opacity was placed on the north elevation, 40% on the south, and
60% on the east and west. From afar, the screen appears as a uniform density, but the
intricacy of the layering and scaling of the screens becomes apparent at a closer
viewpoint, lending the building multiple textural experiences. Behind the shading layer
is a typical curtain wall system that is accessed for maintenance from walkways in the
cavity between the two layers. User-operable solar shades are also available behind the
glazed curtain wall. The overall façade system is estimated to reduce cooling loads by
20%. At night, an integrated lighting system enhances the delicate screen with
programmable light shows.”
Close shots of Doha Tower façade (Courtesy of HBS, 2010)
Construction details of the screen (Nouvel, 2014)
Details of the screen (Garrido, 2014)
The fixed Mashrabiya screen is situated more than a meter from the high performance curtain wall. This is to allow for cleaning access to the space. The metal grating on each floor provides additional shading for the glass.
A bright interior of Doha Tower (Courtesy of HBS, 2010)
Ali Mohammed T. Al-Ghanim Clinic
The Clinic is located in Kuwait, completed in 2014 and designed by AGi architects. The project is characterized in the healthcare sector by addressing matters such as privacy and security through a modern model (AGi, 2014).
Ali Mohammed T. Al-Ghanim Clinic (Garrido, 2014)
The concept of the façade seems to be inspired from Mashrabiya, despite the architects not mentioning it by name, they just talked about the role of the façade in generating light, views, ventilation and cultural identity. The same functions provided by traditional Mashrabiya.
Internal view of the clinic façade (Garrido, 2014)
““ The metal sheet is split into 1m segments where the punctured mesh is placed into,
and works to maintain sufficient sunlight in the interior spaces. When struck by
sunlight, the mesh, casts patterned shadows on the courtyards, which give the spaces a
calmer tone. The contemporary mesh connects also to the cultural identity of end users.”
Manish Restaurant
The project is located in Sao Paulo, Brazil, completed in 2011 and designed by (ODVO arquitetura e urbanismo, Mínima) architects (ODVO, 2011).
Manish Restaurant in Brazil (Pregnolato and Kusuki Studio, 2011)
An internal view of the restaurant façade (Pregnolato and Kusuki Studio, 2011)
The design of main façade is derived from Arab culture, the whole frontispiece is covered by a muraxabi, an imposing concrete arabesque, which decreases the natural light in small frames and focuses the shadows of the busy street (ODVO, 2011).
The architects asserted that they benefited from the functions and decoration of an Arab architectural element, they called it "muraxabi frame," instead of mentioning it by its original name "Mashrabiya".
: Elevation details of the Manish Restaurant (ODVO, 2011)
““We were inspired by the basic elements of Arab architecture, and we tried to translate
such traditional elements into a contemporary language and application. The
architectural part is thus centered around the development of the components of this
kind of architecture: the courtyard, the balcony, the muraxabi frame.”
A night view of the restaurant demonstrates the decorative function of the façade (Pregnolato and Kusuki Studio, 2011)
Mashrabiya House
The project is located in the Arab Palestinian village Beit Safafa between Jerusalem and Bethlehem. It was completed in 2011, and designed by the architect Senan Abdelqader. The architect asserts that:
The Mashrabiya House in Palestine (Amit, 2011)
The Mashrabiya is employed to provide a floating effect by using a new interpretation, where the wooden lattice is re-imagined in the structure of a stone layer that covers the whole house. The façades are formed using the Mashrabiya concept merged with stone work without any design, parameters or consideration of patterns. The architect, in his use of Mashrabiya just focused upon the effect of light and porosity by adopting irregular spacings between large scale stone pieces. The playful design of the façades by creating small and large openings, ensures views from inside to outside while retaining the required privacy. The architect also considers the Mashrabiya to be an environmental element in this project, he understands that the stone layer which surrounds the whole building works as a climatic buffer.
““It helps to absorb heat during the day and release heat during the cool Jerusalem nights.
Thus it protects the building against solar radiation as well as winter rain and winds.
The gaps between the stones ensure a constant flow of fresh air. A further element of
passive cooling is the 1m gap between outer and inner envelop. Not only does it ensure
constant circulation of fresh air around the building the fact that it remains open towards
the top of the building generates a suction effect like that of a chimney: Hot air travels
upwards and fresh air is sucked into the gap from below.”
Masdar City
The project is located in the city of Abu Dhabi, in the United Arab Emirates (2007, 2015), and designed by architects Foster + Partners. Masdar city is considered the first sustainable city in the Arab world, providing superb examples of the use of advanced technology in sustainable architecture while attempting to preserve Arab identity in some aspects, especially in the design of the apartments.
Masdar City in UAE (Courtesy of Foster + Partners, 2010)
The Residential Units in Masdar City, UAE (Foster + Partners, 2010)
“The buildings have self-shading façades and are orientated to provide maximum shade
as well as sheltering adjacent buildings and the pedestrian streets below... Windows in
the residential buildings are protected by a contemporary reinterpretation of
Mashrabiya, a type of latticed projecting oriel window, constructed with sustainably
developed, glass-reinforced concrete, colored with local sand to integrate with its desert
context and to minimize maintenance. The perforations for light and shade are based on
the patterns found in the traditional architecture of Islam.”
Terracotta façade of student dormitories (Caine , 2014)
The buildings at Masdar combine various materials and construction strategies to reduce heat gain, for example, including terracotta cladding, metal screening and air-filled wall panels, like Foster’s metal screen for solar shading inspired by Mashrabiya. While metal screens are used to filter sunlight, air-filled wall panels were designed to minimize the thermal mass of a building’s exterior envelope and reflect the light away (Foster + Partners, 2010).
Foster’s metal screen for solar shading inspired by iconography of local culture (Caine, 2014)
Al Bahar Towers / Mashrabiya Towers
The towers are located in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates, completed in 2012 and designed by Aedas Architects. The project aims to create an outstanding landmark which to express the Arab architectural heritage, conjointly with contemporary and sustainability principles by using modern technology.
Al Bahar Towers/ Mashrabiya Tower in Abu Dhabi, UAE (Aedas, 2012)
The Architects designed for this project a creative, responsive façade which is derived from the cultural cues taken from Mashrabiya. The computational design team at Aedas developed the shading system based on traditional Mashrabiya, and have created a real innovation in the design of an interesting external, automated shading system which encases the building as a dynamic façade, imagined as a modern interpretation of Mashrabiya. The system contains about 2000 umbrella-like modules per tower controlled by photovoltaic panels. The team used a parametric depiction of traditional Mashrabiya for the geometric design of the actual façade panels, and they made these panels responsive to sun exposure and able to alter the angles of incidence during the different times/days of the year (Cilento, 2012).
The Opening Sequence of Mashrabiya Towers Façade (Richters, 2012)
The façade works as a curtain wall, positioned two meters around the buildings’ exterior on a separate frame. Each triangle is plated with fiberglass and programmed to respond to the movement of the sun as a method of decreasing solar gain and glare. In the evening, all the units of the façade close (Cilento, 2012).
“At night they will all fold, so they will all close, so you’ll see more of the facade. As
the sun rises in the morning in the east, the Mashrabiya along the east of the building
will all begin to close and as the sun moves round the building, then that whole vertical
strip of Mashrabiya will move with the sun.”
A night view of Al Bahar Towers (Aedas, 2012)
The Mashrabiya façade at Al Bahar Towers includes a series of transparent umbrellas that could be opened and closed in response to the sun’s path. Each of the two towers has over 1,000 independent shading devices that are driven by the building management system, forming an intelligent façade (CTBUH, 2012).
Comparison of shading units fully closed (left) and fully open (right) (Aedas, 2012)
Each unit consists of a series of stretched PTFE (polytetrafluoroethylene) panels, and it is operated by a linear actuator that will gradually open and close once per day in response to a pre-programmed succession that has been calculated to block direct sunlight and to limit direct solar gain to a maximum of 400 watts per linear meter (CTBUH, 2012).
Responsive Façade (Aedas, 2012)
“The advantage of this approach is the avoidance of dark tinted glass which inevitably
restricts incoming light all of the time rather than just problematic direct sunlight at
certain times of day. Instead, these dynamic shades let daylight in for part of the day
allowing the use of artificial lighting and air conditioning in the interior can be
significantly reduced. The result is a 50% reduction in energy consumption within the
twin towers and an 80% reduction in solar gain.”
Overall view from the north (Aedas, 2012)